物理海洋学

物理海洋学，海洋学的一个分支，研究海水及海底沉积物的各种物理性质以及海洋中发生的各种物理现象。 category:海洋学

海洋学

海洋学是研究海洋的自然现象、性质及其变化规律，以及开发利用海洋的知识体系。是地球科学的组成部分。海洋学与物理学、化学、生物学、地质学以及大气科学、水文科学等密切相关。

学科体系

- 基础学科
- 物理海洋学
- 海洋化学
- 海洋地质学
- 海洋生物学
- 边缘学科
- 海洋工程
- 海岸工程
- 海港工程
- 围海工程
- 海洋石油和天然气开采工程
- 深海采矿工程
- 海水养殖
- 海水淡化工程
- 海水综合利用工程
- 海洋能开发工程
- 海洋水下工程
- 海洋空间开发工程
- 海洋环境学
- 海洋的水文气象预报
- 航海海洋学
- 渔场海洋学
- 军事海洋学
- 区域海洋学

参见

- 海洋灾害
- category:海洋 category:地球科学 ja:海洋学 ko:해양학

The Left and Opposition to War

Historically, various groups on the Left have been either enthusiastic supporters or high-profile opponents of various wars. The original "Left"—that of the French Revolution—ignited the French Revolutionary Wars which raged across Europe for a decade, and were followed by the Napoleonic Wars for another decade and a half. During World War I, much of the Left at least initially opposed war on internationalist and anti-imperialist grounds, though in many countries the socialist parties eventually lined up behind their respective governments. In World War II, much (though by no means all) of the world's Left took its lead from the Soviet Union, moving from an anti-war stance while the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact held, then becoming some of the most ardent proponents of war once Nazi Germany broke its deal with the Soviets. In the years since World War II, most (though by no means all) of the left in the advanced industrial societies has opposed warmaking by their respective countries, while often supporting what they view as anti-imperialist revolutionary wars by colonized or otherwise economically exploited peoples. While anti-war movements have never been exclusively left-wing, many, especially over the last century, have been led, inspired, and organised by those on the Left. While some anti-war attitudes on the left are inspired by pacifism and nonviolence, left-wing attitudes to war are more generally formed from specific criticism of the wars in question. This is often formulated as anti-imperialism; a view point that rejects specific wars because they are seen as being in capitalist interests and against the interests of the working class. Left-wing opposition to war is also often characterised by the internationalist belief that the world's workers share common interests with one another, rather than with the powers governing their respective countries. Until the First World War, there was broad agreement among those on the left on opposition to imperialist wars. Left-wingers by and large found themselves disagreeing with their respective national governments in conflicts such as the Boer War.

The First World War

Before World War I there was a fierce debate among members of the Second International as to the position socialists should take towards the impending war. On the 25 July 1914, the executive of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) issued an appeal to its membership to demonstrate against the coming war, only to vote on 4 August for the war credits the German government wanted. Likewise the French Socialist Party and its union, the CGT, especially after the assassination of the pacificist Jean Jaurès, organised mass rallies and protests until the outbreak of war, but once the war began they argued that in wartime socialists should support their nations against the aggression of other nations and also voted for war credits. In 1915 members of the Second International holding what was by then a minority anti-war position within their respective national parties, met at Zimmerwald to try to work out a joint platform of opposition to the war that was in progress. The Zimmerwald Conference failed to end the War, but did bring together a left wing that supported the Russian Revolution and laid the basis for the Third (Communist) International. Leon Trotsky argued at the time that the failure of the Left to oppose the war led to the destruction of the Second International. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees and helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace". After the revolution, the Bolsheviks called for an armistice, but the world powers refused, worried about the possible spread of revolution.

Spanish Civil War

When the Spanish Civil War broke out, between the right-wing Nationalists and left-wing Republicans, many on the left felt so passionately about the issues that they were willing to volunteer to fight on the side of the Republic. An estimated 40,000 international volunteers fought in Spain in the International Brigades or other leftist militias organized by trade unions or political parties. Others campaigned for the democratic countries to impose arms embargoes and to work through the League of Nations to stop the war. Several prominent left-wing figures fought in the Spanish Civil War, including George Orwell, for whom it was a formative experience.

The Second World War

World War II was largely seen as an anti-fascist war, and met little resistance from those on the left. The positions of many of the communist parties vacillated in line with the vacillation of the policies of the Soviet Union. However, some socialists analysed it as being fought in the interests of capitalism, rather than those of workers. Their responses ranged from unqualified criticism of both sides, in the case of the LSSP of Sri Lanka, through the focus on support for strikes and calls for workers to take control of the fight against fascism of the Workers International League and anarcho-communists in the UK, to the abstentionism and alignment with pacifists of the London Bureau groups.

Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was opposed by many socialists, but there was argument within the left over the nature of and the level of support to be given to the Communist Party of Vietnam. The movements in the U.S. were largely coordinated by the left but involved much wider forces. There was also tension within some organisations: for example the far-left Revolutionary Communist Party attempted to organise a more left wing group 'Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist' (VVAW-AI) in opposition to the more mainstream (and far larger and more successful) Vietnam Veterans Against the War. As of 2005, both organizations survive to this day.

Afghanistan and Iraq war

Around the war in Afghanistan, many left-wing groups were instrumental in setting up anti-war coalitions with broader sections of the public. They managed to achieve some broader participation, initiating many protests against the invasion of Afghanistan. However, the mainstay of opposition remained led by left-wing and pacifist groups. Many of these groups remained in existence after the end of the war in Afghanistan and transferred their opposition to the Iraq war. However oppostion to the Iraq war was much more widespread. The old political left, hard-line socialists and communists, have no significant presence in modern Western politics (see political compass). Most current Western political parties who hold any degree of power, would be characterised as right wing by early 20th Century standards, and in any case opposition in Europe at least ran across party lines. In general, the Left in Europe saw the anti-Iraq-war movement as reinvigorating the Left; however, there is some disagreement as to whether it should continue to been seen as a central mobilising tool. The UK political coalition Respect, which grew out of the anti-war movement, argues that anti-war feeling is key to the growth of the Left, while leading members of the French left-wing group ATTAC claim that too much focus on the war would lead the Left away from focus on economic issues. Popular opposition to war on Iraq in Europe climaxed in an international synchronised anti-war demonstration around the world on February 15, 2003. In Spain, the response to the Madrid bombings was an anti-war move to the left with the election of a social democratic government.

Notes

- [http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj76/trudell.htm Prelude To Revolution: Class Consciousness and the First World War], International Socialism Issue 76, September 1997.
- [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/social-democracy/index.htm The Second International (Social-Democracy)], Marxists Internet Archive
- [http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1914-war/index.htm The War and the International (The Bolsheviks and World Peace)], Marxists Internet Archive

物理海洋学

海洋学

学科体系

参见

The Left and Opposition to War

The First World War

Spanish Civil War

The Second World War

Vietnam War

Afghanistan and Iraq war

Notes

See also

Geography

Communities

Geography

Geography

Geography

Geography

Geography

Geography

Geography

Geography